Описание соснового леса: Сосновый лес: распространение, типы, растения, польза

Хвойные леса — описание, значение, защита ~ Русло.info

Между тундрой на севере и лиственным лесом на юге тянутся обширные и живописные хвойные леса. Один вид такого леса называют северным бореальным, расположился он между 50° и 60° северной широты. Другой тип — хвойный лес умеренного пояса, растет в более низких широтах Северной Америки, Европы и Азии, на высоких возвышенностях гор.

Хвойные леса встречаются главным образом в северном полушарии, хотя некоторые из них можно встретить и в южном.

Этот самый крупный наземный биотоп в мире состоит в основном из хвойных деревьев — деревьев, на которых растут иголки вместо листьев, вместо цветов — конусы, а семена развиваются в шишках. Хвойные деревья имеют тенденцию быть вечнозелеными, то есть их хвоя держится на ветвях круглый год. Исключением можно считать только род лиственниц, хвоя которых желтеет и осыпается в конце каждого лета. Такие приспособления помогают растениям выживать в очень холодных или сухих районах. Некоторые из наиболее распространенных пород — ели, сосны и пихты.

Осадки в хвойных лесах — от 300 до 900 мм в год, а в некоторых лесных массивах умеренного пояса — до 2000 м. Количество осадков зависит от расположения леса. В северных бореальных лесах зимы длинные, холодные и сухие, а лето короткое умеренно теплое, с обилием влаги. В более низких широтах осадки равномерно распределяются в течение года.

Температура воздуха в зонах произрастания сосновых и еловых лесов — от -40° C до 20° C, средняя летняя температура составляет 10° C.

Хвойные леса — вечнозеленое царство

Хвойные деревья произрастают там, где лето короткое и прохладное, а зима длинная и суровая, с сильным снегопадом, который может продолжаться до 6 месяцев. Иглообразные листья имеют воскообразное наружное покрытие, которое предотвращает потерю воды в морозную погоду. Ветви, в свою очередь, мягкие и гибкие и обычно направленны вниз, так что снег без труда скатывается с них. Лиственницы были найдены в некоторых из самых холодных регионов нашей планеты.

Вечнозеленые леса состоят в основном из таких пород как ели, пихты, сосны и лиственницы. Листья этих деревьев являются маленькими и похожими на иглы, либо на чешуйки, и большинство из них остаются зелеными круглый год (вечнозеленые). Все хвойные породы способны жить в холодной и кислой почве.

Все хвойные леса в мире классифицируются согласно следующим типам:

• Евразийский хвойный лес с доминирующей на востоке сибирской сосной, сибирской пихтой, сибирской и даурской (Лиственница Гмелина) лиственницами. Сосна обыкновенная и ель обыкновенная — важные лесообразующие виды в Западной Европе.
• Североамериканский хвойный лес с преобладанием белой ели, черной ели и пихты бальзамической.
• Тропический и субтропический хвойный лес с обилием кипарисов, кедров и секвой.

Северные хвойные леса, такие как хвойный лес в сибири, называются таежными или бореальными лесами. Они охватывают обширные районы Северной Америки от Тихого до Атлантического океана и расположены по всей Северной Европе, Скандинавии, России и по всей Азии через Сибирь и Монголию до северного Китая и северной Японии.

Продолжительность вегетационного периода в бореальных лесах составляет 130 дней.

Кипарисы, кедры и секвойи растут строго вертикально. Самые высокие из них могут достигать 110 м в высоту. Деревья обычно пирамидальные. Короткие боковые ветви растут довольно близко друг к другу, но они настолько гибки, что снег просто соскальзывает.

Светлохвойный лес (преобладает сосна и лиственница):

Темнохвойный лес (преобладает ель и пихта):

Жизнь в хвойном лесу

Биологическое разнообразие биома заметно выше по сравнению с тундрой: одних только гнездящихся птиц насчитывается 120-150 видов, а млекопитающих — до 40–50. В то же время, биоразнообразие хвойных лесов значительно уступает по своему богатству тропическим регионам.

Даже вечнозеленые деревья в конечном итоге сбрасывают свои листья и отращивают новые. Иглы опадают на лесную подстилку и образуют толстый пружинный ковер из хвои. Светлые, обычно кислые почвы хвойных лесов называются подзолами и имеют уплотненный слой гумуса, который содержит много грибов. Нитевидные грибы помогают разлагать упавшие на землю иглы. Эти организмы обеспечивают поступление питательных веществ из опавшей хвои обратно к корням деревьев. Но так как хвоя разлагается очень медленно, почвы под такими деревьями имеют низкое содержание минералов и органических веществ, а количество беспозвоночных, таких как дождевые черви в них крайне мало.

Комары, мухи и другие насекомые являются обычными обитателями хвойного леса, но из-за низких температур здесь присутствует мало хладнокровных позвоночных животных, таких как змеи и лягушки. Птицы хвойных лесов включают дятлов, клестов, корольков, рябчиков, свиристелей, тетеревов, ястребов и сов. Среди млекопитающих распространены землеройки, полевки, белки, куницы, лоси, олени, рыси и волки.

Через толстый купол хвойных деревьев проникает слишком мало света. Из-за постоянного мрака в нижнем ярусе растут только папоротники и совсем немного травянистых растений. Мхи и лишайники напротив, встречаются повсеместно на лесной почве, стволах и ветвях деревьев. Цветущих растений совсем немного.

В настоящее время обширные лесозаготовки в бореальных лесах могут вскоре привести к их исчезновению.

Значение хвойных лесов

Хвойные леса являются основным источником коммерческой древесины в мире. Их использование имеет много преимуществ:

• За исключением очень холодных районов, они быстро растут и могут вырубаться каждые 40-50 лет.
• Многие хвойные породы хорошо соседствуют.
• Замерзлая почва упрощает доступ к древесине для техники и транспорта зимой.
• Мягкая древесина имеет много различных применений — бумага, строительство и мебель и т. д.
• Хвойную древесину можно легко убирать, как урожай, используя современную технику.

Кислотные дожди

За последние 50 лет хвойные леса во всем мире страдают от кислотных дождей. Основными причинами которых являются:

• Выбросы в атмосферу диоксида серы электростанциями, промышленными предприятиями
• Увеличение количества выбрасываемого электростанциями, а также автомобилями окиси азота

Эти загрязняющие вещества переносятся воздушными массами в районы Западной Европы. Пятьдесят миллионов гектаров лесных массивов в 25 европейских странах страдает от действия кислотных дождей. Так, например, гибнут хвойные горные леса в Баварии. Отмечены случаи поражения хвойных, а также лиственных массивов Карелии, Сибири.

Наиболее распространенные хвойные деревья:

• Ель обыкновенная
• Ель белая
• Ель черная
• Канадская тсуга
• Кедр ливанский
  
• Лиственница европейская
  
• Можжевельник обыкновенный (верес)
  
• Пихта
• Подокарп
• Сосна западная
• Сосна карибская
• Сосна обыкновенная
• Сосна сибирская кедровая
• Сосна скрученная
• Фицройя кипарисовидная

Источник: Экологический блог (ruslo.info)

СОСНОВЫЕ ЛЕСА • Большая российская энциклопедия

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  В книжной версии

  Том 30. Москва, 2015, стр. 723-724

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Авторы: Л. П. Рысин

Сосновый лес.

СОСНО́ВЫЕ ЛЕСА́ (со­сня­ки), свет­ло­хвой­ные ле­са, в ко­то­рых гос­под­ствую­щей дре­вес­ной по­ро­дой яв­ля­ют­ся ви­ды ро­да со­сна. Осн. об­ласть рас­про­стра­не­ния – уме­рен­ный по­яс Сев. по­лу­ша­рия. В Сев. Аме­ри­ке сре­ди ле­со­об­ра­зую­щих по­род – со­сны Бан­кса, Мур­рея, вей­му­то­ва, жёл­тая, скру­чен­ная и др. На гор­ных скло­нах Центр. Аме­ри­ки рас­тут ле­са из со­сны Мон­те­су­мы. В Сре­ди­зем­но­мо­рье пре­об­ла­да­ют С. л. с пи­ни­ей. В Ев­ра­зии вплоть до по­бе­ре­жья Охот­ско­го м. ши­ро­ко рас­про­стра­не­ны ле­са из со­сны обык­но­вен­ной – на юге они отд. мас­си­ва­ми встре­ча­ют­ся в степ­ной зо­не, а так­же на гор­ных скло­нах. В Рос­сии С. л. за­ни­ма­ют 16% ле­со­по­кры­той пло­ща­ди, на их до­лю при­хо­дит­ся ок. 20% об­ще­го за­па­са дре­ве­си­ны. С. л. про­из­ра­ста­ют на раз­ных поч­вах, но ос­нов­ные их ме­сто­оби­та­ния свя­за­ны с пес­ча­ны­ми от­ло­же­ния­ми и тор­фя­ни­ка­ми. Раз­но­об­ра­зие поч­вен­но-кли­ма­тич. ус­ло­вий обу­слов­ли­ва­ет их зна­чит. ти­по­ло­гич. раз­но­об­ра­зие. На рав­ни­нах Ев­роп. час­ти Рос­сии, напр., встре­ча­ют­ся со­сня­ки ли­шай­ни­ко­вые, зе­ле­но­мош­ные, кус­тар­нич­ко­вые (брус­нич­ные, чер­нич­ные, ве­ре­ско­вые, то­лок­нян­ко­вые), тра­вя­ные, дол­го­мош­ные, сфаг­но­вые, слож­ные (с ши­ро­ко­ли­ст­вен­ны­ми по­ро­да­ми), в го­рах Си­би­ри – ро­до­ден­д­ро­но­вые, ка­ра­га­но­вые, та­вол­го­вые, оль­хов­ни­ко­вые, кед­ро­во-ст­ла­ни­ко­вые. Ле­са, в ко­то­рых пре­об­ла­да­ют кед­ро­вые со­сны, на­зы­ва­ют­ся кед­ро­вы­ми ле­са­ми. С. л. час­то фор­ми­ру­ют­ся на вы­руб­ках или га­рях, и то­гда их дре­во­стои име­ют од­но­воз­ра­ст­ную струк­ту­ру. С. л. слу­жат ис­точ­ни­ком дре­ве­си­ны, жи­ви­цы и др. ви­дов сы­рья; в них соз­да­ёт­ся спе­ци­фич. мик­ро­кли­мат, вы­де­ля­ет­ся боль­шое ко­ли­че­ст­во смо­ли­стых ве­ществ и фи­тон­ци­дов. С. л. вы­пол­ня­ют во­до­ох­ран­ную, са­ни­тар­но-ги­гие­ни­че­скую, поч­во- и ле­со­за­щит­ную функ­ции, они ис­поль­зу­ют­ся в рек­реа­ци­он­ных це­лях.

90000 90001 Yellowstone National Park (U.S. National Park Service) 90002 90003 90004 90005 Douglas-fir forests occur at lower elevations and are associated with the Lamar, Yellowstone, and Madison river drainages in Yellowstone National Park. 90004 NPS / Jim Peaco 90005 90004 90005 90004 Forests cover roughly 80% of the park, and lodgepole pine makes up nearly all of that canopy. Lodgepole pine, Engelmann spruce, subalpine fir, whitebark pine, and limber pine are found at higher elevations.90005 90004 Douglas-fir forests occur at lower elevations, especially in the northern portion of the park. The thick bark of Douglas-fir trees allows them to tolerate low intensity fire. Some of the trees in these forests are several hundred years old and show fire scars from a succession of low-intensity ground fires. In contrast, lodgepole pine trees have very thin bark and can be killed by ground fires. 90005 90004 At higher elevations, such as the Absaroka Mountains, older forest is dominated by Engelmann spruce and subalpine fir, especially in areas that grow on andesite, a volcanic rock.These forests may have been dominated by lodgepole pine at one time, but have been replaced by Engelmann spruce and subalpine fir in the absence of fire and presence of non-rhyolitic soil (a non-volcanic soil). Engelmann spruce and subalpine fir can also be common in the understory where the canopy is entirely composed of lodgepole pine. 90005 90004 In rhyolitic soils (another volcanic substrate), which are poor in nutrients needed by fir and spruce, lodgepole pine remains dominant. At higher elevations such as the Absaroka Mountains and the Washburn Range, whitebark pine becomes a significant component of the forest.In the upper subalpine zone, whitebark pine, Engelmann spruce, and subalpine fir often grow in small areas separated by subalpine meadows. Wind and desiccation cause distorted forms known as krumholtz where most of the «tree» is protected below snow. 90005 90004 90005 90020 Higher-elevation Species 90021 90004 90023 Lodgepole Pine 90024 90025 (Pinus contorta) 90026 90005 90028 90029 Most common tree in park, 80% of canopy 90030 90029 Needles in groups of twos 90030 90029 Up to 75 feet tall 90030 90035 90004 90023 Engelmann Spruce 90024 90025 (Picea engelmannii) 90026 90005 90028 90029 Often along creeks, or wet areas 90030 90029 Sharp, square needles grow singly 90030 90029 Cones hang down and remain intact, with no bract between scales 90030 90029 Up to 100 feet tall 90030 90035 90004 90023 Subalpine Fir 90024 90025 (Abies lasiocarpa) 90026 90005 90028 90029 Only true fir in the park 90030 90029 Blunt, flat needles 90030 90029 Cones grow upright, disintegrate on tree 90030 90029 Up to 100 feet tall 90030 90035 90004 90023 Limber Pine 90024 90025 (Pinus flexilis) 90026 90005 90028 90029 Needles in groups of five 90030 90029 Young branches are flexible 90030 90029 Up to 75 feet tall 90030 90029 Often on calcium-rich soil 90030 90035 90004 90023 Whitebark Pine 90024 90025 (Pinus albicaulis) 90026 90005 90028 90029 Grows above 7,000 feet 90030 90029 Needles in groups of five 90030 90029 Up to 75 feet tall 90030 90035 90020 Lower-Elevation Species 90021 90004 90023 Douglas-Fir 90024 90025 (Pseudotsuga menziesii) 90026 90005 90028 90029 Resembles the fir and the hemlock, hence its generic name Pseudotsuga, which means «false hemlock» 90030 90029 Cones hang down and remain intact, with three-pronged bract between scales 90030 90029 Up to 100 feet tall 90030 90035 90004 90023 Rocky Mountain Juniper 90024 90025 (Juniperus scopulorum) 90026 90005 90028 90029 Needles scale-like 90030 90029 Cones are small and fleshy 90030 90029 Up to 30 feet tall 90030 90035 90004 90005 90130 Lodgepole Pine 90131 90004 The lodgepole pine 90133 (Pinus contorta) 90134 is by far the most common tree in Yellowstone.Early botanical explorers first encountered the species along the West Coast where it is often contorted into a twisted tree by the wind, and thus named it 90133 Pinus contorta var. contorta 90134. The Rocky Mountain variety, which grows very straight, is 90133 Pinus contorta var. latifolia 90134. Some American Indian tribes used this tree to make the frames of their tipis or lodges, hence the name «lodgepole» pine. 90005 90140 Description 90141 90004 Lodgepoles are the only pine in Yellowstone whose needles grow in groups of two.The bark is typically somewhat brown to yellowish, but a grayish-black fungus often grows on the shady parts of the bark, giving the tree a dark cast. 90005 90004 The species is shade intolerant; any branches left in the shade below the canopy will wither and fall off the tree. Lodgepoles growing by themselves will often have branches all the way to the base of the trunk because sunlight can reach the whole tree. 90005 90140 Reproduction 90141 90004 Like all conifers, lodgepole pines have both male and female cones.The male cones produce huge quantities of yellow pollen in June and July. This yellow pollen is often seen in pools of rainwater around the park or at the edges of lakes and ponds. 90005 90004 The lodgepole’s female cone takes two years to mature. In the first summer, the cones look like tiny, ruby-red miniature cones out near the end of the branches. The next year, after fertilization, the cone starts rapidly growing and soon becomes a conspicuous green. The female cones either open at maturity releasing the seeds, or remain closed-a condition called serotiny-until subjected to high heat such as a forest fire.These cones remain closed and hanging on the tree for years until the right conditions allow them to open. Within a short period of time after the tree flashes into flame, the cones open up and release seeds over the blackened area, effectively dispersing seeds after forest fires. Trees without serotinous cones (like Engelmann spruce, subalpine fir, and Douglas-fir) must rely on wind, animals, or other agents to carry seeds into recently burned areas. 90005 90140 Habitat 90141 90004 Lodgepole pines prefer slightly acidic soil, and will grow quickly in mineral soils disturbed by fire or by humans, a road cut for example.Their roots spread out sideways and do not extend deeply-an advantage in Yellowstone where the topsoil is only about 6 to 12 inches deep, but a disadvantage in high winds. Lodgepole pines are vulnerable in windstorms, especially individuals that are isolated or in the open. 90005 90004 Besides reseeding effectively after disturbance, lodgepole pines can grow in conditions ranging from very wet ground to very poor soil prevalent within the Yellowstone Caldera. This flexibility allows the species to occur in habitat that otherwise would not be forested.90005 90004 Because lodgepole pines are dependent on sunny conditions for seedling establishment and survival, the trees do not reproduce well until the canopy opens up significantly. In the Yellowstone region, this allows the lodgepole pine forest to be replaced by shade-loving seedlings of subalpine fir and Engelmann spruce where the soil is well-developed enough to support either of these species. In areas of nutrient-poor soil, where Engelmann spruce and subalpine fir struggle, lodgepole pines will eventually be replaced by more lodgepole pine trees as the forest finally opens enough to allow young lodgepoles to become established.90005 90004 90005 Whitebark pine needles are clustered in groups of five. 90004 NPS 90005 90130 Whitebark Pine 90131 90004 Whitebark pine 90133 (Pinus albicaulis) 90134 occurs at high elevations a in subalpine communities in the northern Rocky Mountains and the Pacific Northwest. It often grows in areas with poor soils, high winds, and steep slopes that are inhospitable to other tree species. White bark pine is a key species in these upper ranges where it retains snow and reduces erosion, acts as a nurse plant for other subalpine species, and produces seeds that are an important food for birds, grizzly bears, and other wildlife.Whitebark pine produces wingless seeds and relies primarily on Clark’s nutcrackers (90133 Nucifraga Columbiana 90134) for seed dispersal. 90005 90004 Substantial mortality in whitebark populations has been documented throughout its range. Decreases are attributed to the introduced pathogen, white pine blister rust 90133 (Cronartium ribicola) 90134; native mountain pine beetle 90133 (Dendroctonus ponderosae) 90134; historic wildland fire suppression resulting in more frequent, larger, and hotter wildfires; and projected environmental factors associated with climate change.These agents, both individually and collectively, pose a significant threat to the persistence of healthy whitebark pine populations on the landscape. 90005 90004 A reported 14-16% of whitebark pine trees taller 1.4 meters tall are infected with blister rust in the Greater Yellowstone region. As of 2017, 1,502 of the more than 5,300 monitored trees had died, including 67% of those in the> 10 cm in diameter size classes. (The mountain pine beetle prefers larger trees for laying their eggs; the larvae feed on the inner phloem of the bark.) In addition, the Greater Yellowstone Network has estimated that by the end of 2015 року, 26% of whitebark pine trees> 1.4 meters tall had died. 90005 90004 Aerial surveys, which measure the spatial extent of mortality rather than the percentage of individual dead trees counted on the ground, have generally produced higher whitebark pine mortality estimates in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. This could be because larger trees, which occupy more of the area in the forest canopy visible from the air, are more likely to be attacked by beetles.In 2013, an aerial survey method called the Landscape Assessment System was used to assess mountain pine beetle-caused mortality of whitebark pine across the region. Results of the one-time study indicate that nearly half (46%) of the GYE whitebark pine distribution showed severe mortality, 36% showed moderate mortality, 13% showed low mortality, and 5% showed trace levels of mortality. 90005 90004 Despite the high percentage of large trees that have died, there are trees that are still producing cones and regeneration is occurring.The network estimated an average growth of 51 small trees per 500 meters squared by the end of 2015. 90005 90004 90005 90130 Understory Vegetation 90131 90004 Understory vegetation differs according to precipitation, the forest type, and the substrate. Lodgepole pine forest is often characterized by a very sparse understory of mostly elk sedge 90133 (Carex geyeri) 90134 or grouse whortleberry 90133 (Vaccinium scoparium) 90134. Pinegrass 90133 (Calamagrostis rubescens) 90134 occurs frequently under Douglas-fir forest but is also common under other forest types, especially where the soil is better developed or more moist.In some areas of the park, such as Bechler and around the edges of the northern range, a more obviously developed shrub layer is composed of species such as Utah honeysuckle 90133 (Lonicera utahensis) 90134, snowberry 90133 (Symphoricarpos spp.) 90134, and buffaloberry 90133 (Shepherdia canadensis) 90134. 90005 90004 90005 90130 Forest Insect Pests 90131 90004 The conifer trees of Yellowstone face six major insect and fungal threats. The fungus is an nonnative species, but the insects are native to this ecosystem.They have been present and active in cycles, probably for centuries. A scientist studying lake cores from the park has found some of their insect remains in the cores, indicating their presence even millions of years ago. However, in the last 10 years, all five insects have been extremely active, which may be due to the effects of climate change. 90005 90004 The primary cause of tree mortality in the Yellowstone is native bark beetles. The beetles damage trees in similar ways: their larvae and adults consume the inner bark.If the tree is girdled, it dies. Their feeding activity can girdle a tree in one summer, turning the crown red by the following summer. The needles usually drop within the next year, leaving a standing dead tree. Isolated pockets of red-needled trees are scattered throughout the park. 90005 90140 Pest Activity 90141 90004 The severity of insect-caused tree mortality has been considerable throughout the West for over a decade, and the insects have spread to previously unaffected plant communities.Several native bark beetle species in the Scolytidae family have altered extensive areas within Greater Yellowstone. Forest structure, tree health, and climate are the major factors in determining whether an outbreak expands; drought and warmer temperatures can make forests more vulnerable to infestation. 90005 90004 Recent evaluation has shown decreases in infection and infestation rates since 2001, suggesting that resistance may be slowly increasing. Although activity by both Douglas-fir beetle and Engelmann spruce beetle has declined to endemic (natural to Yellowstone) levels since 2000, other forest insects of ecological significance remain active.Mountain pine beetle activity was largely confined to the northwest portion of the park, in high-elevation whitebark pine and lower-elevation lodgepole pine, peaking in 2009 with annual decreases in mortality since then. Defoliation of Douglas-fir and Engelmann spruce by the western spruce budworm is present in the park throughout the lower Lamar and along the Yellowstone and Lamar river valleys, but has spread considerably less in recent years. These trends appeared to continue in 2011, when the park was only partially surveyed.90005 90140 Future of Insect Outbreaks in Yellowstone 90141 90004 Landscape-scale drought and the availability of suitable host trees have contributed to the initiation and persistence of insect outbreaks. Healthy trees can defend themselves from beetle attack by «pitching out» adult females as they try to bore into the tree. Extreme winter temperatures can kill off overwintering broods, and wet summer weather impedes the insects from invading additional trees. Insect activity also decreases as the larger and more susceptible trees are killed off.Spruce beetles have declined because they have killed almost all of their preferred food source (spruce trees more than 10 inches indiameter). 90005 90004 Recent and ongoing studies supported by the National Park Service are investigating the interaction between insect infestations and wildfire. Researchers have focused on how bark beetle epidemics may affect fire behavior in lodgepole-dominated forests and are comparing the resulting fire hazard with that in Douglas-fir forests. 90005 90004 90005 90020 Forest Insect Pests 90021 90020 Number in Yellowstone 90021 90020 Mountain Pine Beetle 90021 90028 90029 90133 Dendroctonus ponderosae 90134 90030 90029 Affects whitebark, lodgepole, and limber pine.90030 90029 The tree defends itself by increasing resin (pitch) production, which can «pitch out» the insect from the tree and seal the entrance to others. 90030 90029 Look for globs of resin, often mixed with wood borings, on the bark. 90030 90029 Adults emerge in mid-summer. 90030 90035 90020 Engelmann Spruce Beetle 90021 90028 90029 90133 Dendroctonus rufipenni 90134 90030 90029 Affects Englemann spruce, rarely lodgepole pine. 90030 90029 Larvae feed for two years. 90030 90029 Look for reddish dust on the bark and at the base of the tree in early summer.90030 90035 90020 Douglas-Fir Beetle 90021 90028 90029 90133 Dendroctonus pseudotsugae 90134 90030 90029 Affects Douglas-fir. 90030 90029 Larvae also consume outer bark. 90030 90035 90020 Western Balsam Bark Beetle 90021 90028 90029 90133 Dryocoetes confusus 90134 90030 90029 Affects subalpine fir. 90030 90035 90020 Western Spruce Budworm 90021 90028 90029 90133 Choristoneura occidentalis 90134 90030 90029 Affects Douglas-fir, true firs, spruce. 90030 90029 Larvae defoliate trees and can destroy cones and seeds.90030 90029 Look for clumps of chewed needles on branch tips. 90030 90035 90020 White Pine Blister Rust 90021 90028 90029 A nonnative disease caused by a fungus, 90133 Cronartium ribicola 90134. 90030 90029 Affects whitebark and limber pines. 90030 90029 The disease impacts the tree’s ability to transport nutrients and produce cones, and may eventually kill the tree. 90030 90029 Look for cankers (lesions) on the bark. 90030 90035 90020 Management Issues 90021 90028 90029 Research supported by the National Park Service will investigate the interactions between insect infestations and wildfire.90030 90035 90004 90005 90004 90005 90130 Resources (Forests) 90131 90004 Amman, G.D. and K.C. Ryan. 1991. Insect infestation of fire injured trees in the Greater Yellowstone Area, Edited by US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 90005 90004 Christof, B., D. Kulakowski, and T.T. Veblen. 2005. Multiple disturbance interactions and drought influence fire severity in Rocky Mountain subalpine forests. 90133 Ecology 90134 86 (11): 3018-3029. 90005 90004 Despain, D.G. 1990. 90133 Yellowstone vegetation: Consequences of environment and history in a natural setting 90134. Boulder, CO: Roberts Rinehart Publishing Company. 90005 90004 Fleming, R.A., J.-N. Candau, and R.S. McAlpine. 2002. Landscape-scale analysis of interactions between insect defoliation and forest fire in central Canada. 90133 Climatic Change 90134 55 (1-2): 251-272. 90005 90004 Furniss, M. M. and R. Renkin. 2003. Forest entomology in Yellowstone National Park, 1923-1957: A time of discovery and learning to let live.90133 American Entomologist 90134 49 (4): 198-209. 90005 90004 Hagle, S.K. et al. 2003. A Field Guide to Diseases and Insects of Northern and Central Rocky Mountain Conifers. U.S. Forest Service Report R1-03-08. 90005 90004 Hicke, J.A. et a .. 2006. Changing temperatures influence suitability for modeled mountain pine beetle outbreaks in the western United States. 90133 Journal of Geophysical Research 90134 111: G02019. 90005 90004 Johnson, P.C. and R.E. Denton. 1975. Outbreaks of the western spruce budworm in the American northern Rocky Mountain area from тисяча дев’ятсот двадцять дві through 1971, Edited by US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experimentation Station.Ogden, UT. 90005 90004 Logan, J.A. et al. 2003. Assessing the impacts of global warming on forest pest dynamics. 90133 Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 90134 1: 130-137. 90005 90004 Lynch, H., R. Renkin, R. Crabtree, and P. Moorcroft. 2006. The influence of previous mountain pine beetle (90133 Dendroctonus ponderosae 90134) activity on the тисячі дев’ятсот вісімдесят вісім Yellowstone fires. 90133 Ecosystems 90134 9 (8): 1318-1327. 90005 90004 McCullough, D.G., R.A. Werner, and D. Neumann. 1998. Fire and insects in northern and boreal forest ecosystems of North America.90133 Annual Review of Entomology 90134 43 (1): 107-127. 90005 90004 Pauchard, A. and Alaback, P. 2006. Edge types defines alien species invasions along 90133 P. contorta 90134 burned, highway and clearcut forest edges. 90133 Forest Ecology and Management 90134 223: 327-335. 90005 90004 Renkin, R.A. and D.G. Despain. 1992. Fuel moisture, forest type, and lightning-caused fire in Yellowstone National Park. 90133 Canadian Journal of Forest Research 90134 22 (1): 37-45. 90005 90004 Ryan, K.C. and G.D. Amman. 1994. Interactions between fire-injured trees and insects in the Greater Yellowstone Area. In D. G. Despain, ed., 90133 Plants and their environments: Proceedings of the first Biennial Scientific Conference on the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem 90134, 259-271. Yellowstone National Park, WY: US Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Rocky Mountain Region, Yellowstone National Park. 90005 90004 Schmid, J.M. and G.D. Amman. 1992. Dendroctonus beetles and old-growth forests in the Rockies.In M.R. Kaufmann, W.H. Moir and R.L. Bassett, ed., Old-growth forests in the Southwest and Rocky Mountain regions, proceedings of a workshop, 51-59. Portal, AZ: USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experimentation Station. 90005 90004 Schoennagel, T., T.T. Veblen, and W.H. Romme. 2004. The interaction of fire, fuels, and climate across Rocky Mountain forests. 90133 BioScience 90134 54 (7): 661-676. 90005 90004 Simard, M. et. al. 2011. Do mountain pine beetle outbreaks change the probability of active crown fire in lodgepole pine forests? 90133 Ecological Monographs 90134 81 (1): 3-24.90005 90004 Veblen, T. T., K. S. Hadley, E. M. Nel, T. Kitzberger, R. Marion, and R. Villalba. 1994. Disturbance regime and disturbance interactions in a Rocky Mountain subalpine forest. 90133 Journal of Ecology 90134 82 (1): 125-135. 90005 90130 Resources (Whitebark Pine) 90131 90004 Gibson, K. 2006. Mountain pine beetle conditions in whitebark pine stands in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, 2006. Missoula, MT: USDA Forest Service, Forest Health Protection, Missoula Field Office. 90005 90004 Greater Yellowstone Whitebark Pine Monitoring Working Group.2017. Monitoring whitebark pine in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem діє до: 2016 annual report. Natural Resource Data Series NPS / GRYN / NRDS-2017/1453. National Park Service, Fort Collins, Colorado. 90005 90004 Macfarlane, W.W., Logan, J.A., and Kern, W.R .. 2013. An innovative aerial assessment of Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem mountain pine beetle-caused whitebark pine mortality. 90133 Ecological Applications 90134 23 (2): 421-37 90005 90004 Mahalovich, M. F. 2013. Grizzly Bears and Whitebark Pine in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem.Future Status of Whitebark Pine: Blister Rust Resistance, Mountain Pine Beetle, and Climate Change. US Forest Service. Report Number: 2470 RRM-NR-WP-13-01. 90005 90004 Shanahan, E., K. M Irvine, D. Thoma, S. Wilmoth, A. Ray, K. Legg, and H. Shovic. 2016. Whitebark pine mortality related to white pine blister rust, mountain pine beetle outbreak, and water availability. Ecosphere 7 (12) 90005 90004 Shanahan, E., K. Legg, and R. Daley. 2017. Status of whitebark pine in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem: A steptrend analysis with comparisons from 2004 to 2015.Natural Resource Report NPS / GRYN / NRR-2017/1445. National Park Service, Fort Collins, Colorado. 90005 90004 Tomback, D.F., S.F. Arno, and R.E. Keane. 2001. 90133 Whitebark pine communities: Ecology and restoration 90134. Washington, DC: Island Press. 90005 90004 90005 90140 Plants 90141 90004 Spring is a time for plant growth, fueling the return of many migratory species. 90005 90414 90415.90000 Forest description generator 90001 90002 90003 90004 90005 New! 90006 To Mobile Version 90007 90008 90004 90010 Home 90011 90010 Fantasy Names 90011 90010 Real Names 90011 90010 Place Names 90011 90008 90004 90010 Pop Culture 90011 90010 Other Names 90011 90010 Descriptions 90011 90010 Other Gens. 90011 90008 90004 90010 Contact 90011 90010 About 90011 90010 Help The Site 90011 90010 Thank You 90011 90008 90039 90040 90041 90042 Home 90043 90042 Fantasy Names 90006 ▼ 90041 90047 90048 90042 Alien Names 90043 90042 Amazon Names 90043 90042 Angel Names 90043 90042 Animal Species Names 90043 90042 Animatronic Names 90043 90042 Anime Character Names 90043 90042 Anthousai Names 90043 90042 Apocalypse / Mutant Names 90043 90042 Artificial Intelligence Names 90043 90042 Bandit Names 90043 90042 Banshee Names 90043 90042 Barbarian Names 90043 90042 Basilisk Names 90043 90042 Birdfolk Names 90043 90042 Bluecap Names 90043 90042 Bounty Hunter Names 90043 90042 Brownie Names 90043 90042 Cat-people / Nekojin Names 90043 90042 Cavemen Names 90043 90042 Centaur Names 90043 90042 Christmas Elf Names 90043 90042 Cockatrice Names 90043 90042 Code Names 90043 90042 Cowboy / girl Names 90043 90042 Cyberpunk (Nick) Names 90043 90042 Dark Elf Names 90043 90042 Death Names 90043 90042 Death Worm Names 90043 90042 Demon Names 90043 90042 Detective Names 90043 90109 90048 90042 Dracaenae Names 90043 90042 Dragon Names 90043 90042 Dragon Names (Chinese) 90043 90042 Dragonkin Names 90043 90042 Dryad Names 90043 90042 Dwarf Names 90043 90042 Elemental Names 90043 90042 Elf Names 90043 90042 Ent / Tree creature Names 90043 90042 Evil Names 90043 90042 Faery Court Names 90043 90042 Fairy Names 90043 90042 Fantasy Animal Names 90043 90042 Fantasy Creature Names 90043 90042 Fantasy Race Names 90043 90042 Fantasy Surnames 90043 90042 Fursona Names 90043 90042 Futuristic Names 90043 90042 Gargoyle Names 90043 90042 Genie Names 90043 90042 Ghost Classifications 90043 90042 Ghost / Spirit Names 90043 90042 Ghoul Names 90043 90042 Giant Names 90043 90042 Gnoll Names 90043 90042 Gnome Names 90043 90042 Goblin Names 90043 90042 God & Goddess Names 90043 90042 Golem Names 90043 90042 Gorgon Names 90043 90109 90048 90042 Graeae Names 90043 90042 Griffin Names 90043 90042 Grootslang Names 90043 90042 Guardian Names 90043 90042 Half-Elf Names 90043 90042 Half-Orc Names 90043 90042 Harpy Names 90043 90042 Hellhound Names 90043 90042 Hobbit Names 90043 90042 (Heroic) Horse Names 90043 90042 Hydra Names 90043 90042 Ifrit Names 90043 90042 Imp Names 90043 90042 Jackalopes & Wolpertingers 90043 90042 Jotunn Names 90043 90042 Kaiju Names 90043 90042 Killer Names 90043 90042 Kitsune Names 90043 90042 Knight Names 90043 90042 Kobold Names 90043 90042 Lamia Names 90043 90042 Legendary Creature Names 90043 90042 Lich Names 90043 90042 Lizardfolk Names 90043 90042 Mad Scientist Names 90043 90042 Manananggal Names 90043 90042 Manticore Names 90043 90042 Mecha Names 90043 90042 Medieval Names 90043 90042 Mermaid / Merman Names 90043 90109 90048 90042 Minotaur Names 90043 90042 Mirrored Twin Names 90043 90042 Monster Names 90043 90042 Moon Rabbit Names 90043 90042 Morgen Names 90043 90042 Mutant Species Names 90043 90042 Naga Names 90043 90042 Necromancer Names 90043 90042 Nephilim Names 90043 90042 Ninja & Assassin Names 90043 90042 Non-Magic User Names 90043 90042 Norse Raven Names — New! 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90043 90042 Croatian Names 90043 90042 Cypriot Names 90043 90042 Czech Names 90043 90042 Danish Names 90043 90042 Dari Names 90043 90042 Dutch Names 90043 90042 Edwardian Names 90043 90042 Egyptian Names (Ancient) 90043 90042 Egyptian Names (Modern) 90043 90042 Elizabethan Names 90043 90042 English (American) 90043 90042 English (British) 90043 90042 Enochian Names 90043 90042 Estonian Names 90043 90042 Ethiopian Names 90043 90042 Etruscan Names 90043 90042 Faroese Names 90043 90042 Filipino Names 90043 90042 Finnish Names 90043 90042 Frankish Names 90043 90042 French Names 90043 90042 Frisian Names 90043 90042 Galician Names 90043 90042 Georgian Names 90043 90042 German Names 90043 90042 Gothic Names 90043 90109 90043.90000 Pine Forest | Article about Pine Forest by The Free Dictionary 90001 90002 a light coniferous forest in which pine is the predominant tree. Pine forests are widespread in the forest and forest-steppe belts of the temperate and subtropical zones and in the mountain-forest belt. They occur on sandy loams, sands, limestones, dolomites, and peat bogs. Pine forests on chalk outcrop-pings, as well as steppe and forest-steppe forests of the temperate belt, are preglacial in age. Subtropical pine forests occur in the mountains and on seacoasts.90003 90002 Pine forests in North America are represented by various species that form pine groves on poor soils and ancient mixed forests with redwoods. Pine forests with juniper occur in the mountains of Mexico and the West Indies. In the Mediterranean region forests of Italian stone pine (90005 Pinus pinea 90006), Aleppo pine (90005 P. halepensis 90006), Crimean pine (90005 P. pallasiana 90006), Canary pine (90005 P. canariensis 90006), and Austrian pine ( 90005 P. nigra 90006) predominate.Endemic pine species include the Macedonian pine (90005 P. peuce 90006), which is found in the Balkans, and the Pitsunda pine (90005 P. pityusa 90006), which occurs near Cape Pitsunda in the Caucasus. 90003 90002 Forests of Italian stone pine with an understory of juniper and broom are common in Italy, Spain, Portugal, and Greece. Forests of Aleppo pine occur on poor soils in Algeria and Cyprus; such forests are encountered as far east as Syria and Palestine. The Canary pine is the dominant species in the pine forests of the Canary Islands.The mountain forests of the Balkans, the Pyrenees, the Apennines, Greece, Asia Minor, and Crete consist of the pine 90005 P. Laricio 90006 and an understory of evergreen shrubs. Classified among Mediterranean pine forests are the forests of Crimean pine in the Crimea and the forests of various pine species in the Caucasus. 90003 90002 In Southeast Asia (Yunnan Plateau, Burma, Cambodia, Japan, and the Philippines) subtropical pine forests form a belt of mountain forests composed of various species of pine.The ground is covered with grasses, and there usually is no shrubbery. The pine forests of the Yunnan Plateau consist of Chinese pine (90005 P. sinensis 90006). Boreal pine forests occur on the plains of Eurasia and North America. Canadian pine forests are confined to sand deposits and peat bogs; their species composition is similar to that of pine forests in the taiga zone of Eurasia, but there is a prevalence of white pine (90005 P. strobus 90006) and jack pine (90005 P. banksiana 90006).In Eurasia forests of Scotch pine predominate. 90003 90002 The various types of pine forests occurring in the taiga zone include those with soil covered with lichen, bearberry, bog moss, or true mosses with bilberry or foxberry. Steppe and forest-steppe zones are characterized by forb and steppe pine groves. 90003 90002 In the USSR pine forests occupy 94 million hectares, roughly 14 percent of the country’s forested area. They play an important part in preserving groundwater and raising yields of agricultural crops in arid zones.They also reinforce sands, gulleys, and mountain slopes and protect against snow avalanches and mud flows. 90003 90002 90037 REFERENCES 90038 Il’inskii, A. P. 90005 Rastitel’nosl ‘zemnogo shara 90006. Moscow-Leningrad, 1937. 90041 90005 Rastitel’nyi pokrov SSSR 90006, part 1. Moscow-Leningrad, 1956. 90003.